Art/Research International: A Transdisciplinary Journal
Volume 3 Issue 2
ARTS-BASED APPROACHES TO STUDYING TRAVELLER
CHILDREN’S EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES
Damian Knipe
St. Mary’s University College Belfast
Geraldine Magennis
St. Mary’s University College Belfast
Damian Knipe is a Research Officer at St Mary’s University College Belfast and is
involved in the development of the institution’s research culture through the work of the
Research Office. He conducts research in the area of research methodology and the
analysis of data.
Geraldine Magennis is a Senior Lecturer in Education and Literacy at St Mary’s
University College Belfast. She conducts research in the area of children’s literacy. She
is a member of the College’s Research Committee as well as other national research-
orientated organisations such as the Standing Conference on Teacher Education: North
and South (SCoTENS), the Teacher Education Group (TEG) and the British Education
Research Association (BERA).
Abstract: In this article, we present ideas on how arts-based methods can be applied to
conducting research with a minority ethnic group (i.e., Traveller children) and offer ways
to analyse data. We refer to the culture of Traveller children, report statistics on their
educational performance and refer to recent research in Northern Ireland on their
disengagement from compulsory post-primary (11-16 years old) education. We look
through the lens of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory and consider a re-think
of the approach typically used in research to tap into Traveller children’s educational
experiences. We offer a brief summary of the principles of arts-based research, outlining
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the theoretical underpinnings of supporters who argue for its use in educational
research settings. We elaborate on three arts-based research methods as options in the
design of conducting research with Traveller children and offer advice on associated
ethical issues. In exploring methods of analysis, we refer to the types of data and
suggest a content and thematic analytical approach to interpret the data. In conclusion,
we reiterate the importance of offering these culturally responsive means to engage with
this minority ethnic group.
Keywords: Traveller children; photographs as data; collage in the classroom; musical
expression; content and thematic analyses
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This article’s topic is twofold: we propose how to use arts-based research to elicit
views from a sector of society in Northern Ireland deemed part of a minority ethnic group
(i.e., Traveller children); and how to analyse corresponding data. The article is of value to
researchers (both student and academic) as it informs
them about the design of an arts-based research study,
which is based on a careful exploration of research-
informed ways to implement arts-based methods. The
“In this article, we
context for this proposed research relates to a lack of
introduce the
engagement between researchers and the Traveller
reader to the
community using culturally responsive research methods,
and a priority of inviting this minority ethnic group to
lifestyle of the
debate on educational practice. The research methods
Traveller
proposed are arts-based and involve photography,
collage, and music.
community, provide
an insight into
In this article, we introduce the reader to the
lifestyle of the Traveller community, provide an insight
Traveller children’s
into Traveller children’s academic achievements in post-
academic
primary education, and give a snapshot of other recent
achievements in
research on this minority ethnic group. We offer
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory, as
post-primary
well as Lundy’s (2007) model for conceptualising Article
education, and give
12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child when considering appropriate research methods to
a snapshot of other
connect with Traveller children, and focus on theories
recent research on
that underpin arts-based research. Following an outline
of employing photography, collage, and music as
this minority ethnic
methods to elicit Traveller children’s views on education,
group.”
as well as consideration of relevant ethical issues, we
argue for using content and thematic analyses and
explain how to carry them out. We conclude by asserting
that arts-based research methods are culturally responsive in facilitating Traveller
children’s voices, compared to traditional research methods. In our roles as researchers
who work with undergraduate and postgraduate students of teacher education, we
support the use of arts-based research methods and advocate for them to be
considered by students when conducting their research projects.
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The Department of Education Northern Ireland (2010) view the Irish Traveller
community, of which Traveller children belong, as “a community of people . . . who are
identified (by themselves and others) as people with a shared history, cultures and
traditions, including, historically, a nomadic way of life on the island of Ireland” (p. 1).
The Irish Traveller community is an indigenous minority ethnic group who follow a
nomadic lifestyle as part of their cultural identity. Traveller children play a major role
within this community by contributing to the continuation of its common ancestry.
Traveller children share the same culture, values, and traditions as their parents, often
immerse themselves in their own language, and view their community as distinctive
from the settled community. Regarding its common ancestry, people cannot identify
themselves as Travellers unless they are born into the community. This leads to
marriage between Traveller families, and for Traveller children this can occur as early as
16 years of age. Maintaining their culture, values, and traditions is vital to this minority
ethnic group. Connecting with other Traveller families, operating as self-employed and
financially independent, organising events to commemorate funerals and celebrate
weddings, rejecting settled ways of life (including formal education), and being cautious
of people outside their own community, all contribute to the deep-rooted and ritual
behaviours of this community which are passed down to the Traveller children (Pavee
Point and Irish Human Rights Commission, 2008; The Traveller Movement, 2015).
We suggest the vulnerability of Traveller children, in terms of their high levels of
illiteracy as reported by the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland (2008), can be
addressed using arts-based research methods. Leavy (2017) offered the following
description of arts-based research: “methodological tools used by researchers across
the disciplines during any or all phases of research, including problem generation, data
or content generation, analysis, interpretation, and representation”
(p.
4). Leavy
explained that arts-based research, “may draw on any art form and representational
forms that include but are not limited to . . . performative forms (music, songs, dance,
creative movement, theatre); visual art
(photography, drawing, painting, collage,
installation art, three-dimensional
(3-D) art, sculpture, comics, quilts,
needlework); . . .” (p. 4).
The Northern Ireland Executive (2011) aspired to address the educational needs
of Traveller children and to facilitate them as contributors to educational debate. This fits
the ultimate goal of arts-based educational research noted by Barone and Eisner (2006)
as being for “the betterment of educational policy and practice” (p. 96). Arts-based
research can explore the personal experiences of Traveller children in educational
settings in Northern Ireland using a selection of arts-based research methods to reveal
issues that make them disengage from compulsory post-primary education.
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Arts-based research methods can provide an opportunity for Traveller children to
express their voice when exploring their personal educational experiences. In previous
research that used imagery by post-primary pupils to elicit their views on school culture
and pupil participation, Leitch and Mitchell (2007) commented that:
The visual images, created by students are used both as a visual means of
data collection in themselves (representations) and stimuli to understand, in
more depth, pupils’ personal meanings, experience(s) and interpretations of
their school’s culture through follow-up research conversations. (p. 54)
Local Governmental Statistics and Recent Research in Northern
Ireland on Traveller Children in Education
The Northern Ireland Executive (2011) published a news release relating to the
then Education Minister for Northern Ireland when talking about a taskforce on the
education of Travellers set up three years earlier. It referred to Traveller children being
disadvantaged in terms of education and facing severe inequality and suffering. The
Education Minister called for Traveller children to be provided with equal opportunities at
school within an inclusive learning environment. This required schools to take additional
positive actions in areas such as access, inclusion, attainment, attendance, and
relationships.
Regarding the educational performance of Traveller children, the Department of
Education Northern Ireland no longer publishes details of their academic achievements
in compulsory post-primary education. Instead, its statistical bulletins (the most recent
being for the 2014/2015 school year) present an analysis of examination performance of
children in Year 12 and Year 14 in post-primary education in Northern Ireland by
focusing on variables, which include school type, gender, education and library boards,
free school meal entitlement, and management type. Hamilton, Bloomer, Holohan, and
Bell (2007) cited the last recorded statistics by the Department of Education Northern
Ireland for Traveller children at Key Stage Three (11-14 years old) for the 2004/2005
school year. They indicated that for performance in English at Key Stage Three, only
19.4% of Traveller children achieved the expected level 5 or above (compared to 73.3%
of all pupils). For performance in Mathematics at Key Stage Three, only
29% of
Traveller children achieved the expected level 5 or above (compared to 71% of all
pupils). At Key Stage Four (14-16 years old) in the 2003/2004 combined with 2004/2005
school years, Hamilton et al. (2007) cited statistics that indicated only 24% of Traveller
children achieved 5+ GCSEs A* - G (compared to 88-89% of all pupils).
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Following that, the report of the Taskforce on Traveller Education (2011) to the
Department of Education Northern Ireland cited statistics sourced from the school
leavers’ survey. This report indicated that in relation to attainment for the five school
years in compulsory post-primary education, between
2003/2004 and 2008/2009,
61.9% of Traveller children left school achieving no GCSEs (compared to 2.9% of the
Northern Ireland total school leavers for the 2008/2009 school year). In a statistical
bulletin by the Department of Education Northern Ireland (2016) on the qualifications
and destinations of Northern Ireland school leavers 2014/15, Irish Travellers were
included in the category of minority ethnic groups, along with other groups, and
therefore no data specific to Traveller children in Northern Ireland are currently
available.
A report by the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland (2006) on developing a
strategy for equality in education for Travellers, referred to its consultation carried out
with Travellers on education. There was a perception by Travellers that school
attendance did not necessarily culminate in satisfactory levels of educational
performance or attainment, and that Traveller children experienced racist bullying. The
report referred to non-attendance at school being due to a fear of bullying,
disillusionment, and education not being relevant, leading to high numbers of illiterate
Traveller children. There is also reference in the report of Traveller children feeling
marginalised in schools, often experiencing racial prejudice and hostility.
The report on educational provision for Traveller children by Hamilton et al.
(2007) was published by the Northern Ireland Commissioner for Children and Young
People and the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland. In this report, results
suggested that some Traveller children supported the importance of learning to read
and write, but that the relevance of compulsory education and qualifications were
questioned. There was also a feeling among Traveller children that the school
curriculum and system failed to meet their needs, therefore contributing to their low
expectations regarding compulsory education.
The report of the Taskforce on Traveller Education (2011) to the Department of
Education Northern Ireland referred to issues faced by Traveller children in post-primary
education in Northern Ireland. These included, for example, lack of curricular relevance,
low self-esteem, a need for focused learning to meet their needs, and a lack of
recognition for Traveller traditions. These issues could be investigated further using
arts-based research methods with Traveller children.
Typically, research studies carried out with Traveller children in Northern Ireland
schools use methods that rely on a questionnaire. Although beneficial and generating
important data, this article proposes a re-think of previous methods of inquiry to
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incorporate an arts-based research design which is innovative, creative, attractive and
limitless. We believe this type of thinking can reveal new perspectives from Traveller
children relating to their education in post-primary schools. It can appeal more to the
Traveller community in Northern Ireland as evidenced by Hamilton et al. (2007) who
consulted with An Munia Tober (AMT), a Traveller support programme in Belfast, and
commented that, “In view of their previous experiences, AMT believed that artwork,
paintings, story telling, music and drama would be appropriate consultation tools . . .
with the children and young people” (p. 47).
We suggest these types of arts-based methods proposed by AMT are more
interactive, exciting, culturally responsive, and fun for Traveller children compared to
questionnaires. We believe also that due to the high numbers of illiterate Traveller
children in comparison to the general population, these arts-based methods lend
themselves more to the educational needs of young Travellers, as they will not have to
read a questionnaire and write responses to questions.
Connecting the Worldviews of Researchers and the Researched
Clough and Nutbrown (2012) postulate that to consider social science research
trustworthy, it must be purposive, persuasive, positional, and political. This article
addresses the latter two tenets because the participants are from a minority ethnic
group. Caution must be exercised in maintaining credibility of claims made, since data
are inevitably collected within a political context and therefore analysed in accordance
with researchers’ worldviews. To authenticate Traveller children’s perspectives, this
study examines these latter two precepts through the lens of Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological systems theory. Before doing so, it is important to acknowledge this particular
theoretical framework has, according to Tudge, Payir, Mercon-Vargas, Cao, Liang, Li,
and O’ Brien (2016), often been misinterpreted in the past. In a bid to avoid replicating
such misunderstandings, this article refers to updated critiques of Bronfenbrenner’s
seminal model.
Over the lifespan of his work, Bronfenbrenner (1977; 1979; 2005) sought to
convey a bio-ecological understanding of human development. Latterly, he placed
greater emphasis on innate characteristics and their potential impact on an individual’s
life-long development. In refining his theory, Bronfenbrenner came up with the Person,
Process, Context, and Time (PPCT) model. In terms of the first “P” in the PPCT model
(Person), he believed children possess three types of characteristics that they present
to the social world, in addition to their innate biological and genetic traits. These three
types of characteristics included: firstly, demand characteristics
(visibly identifiable
markers, such as, age, gender, and race that can influence another’s reaction to and
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expectation of someone); secondly, resource characteristics (internal cognitive, mental,
and emotional dispositions that influence how one handles different life situations. They
also include one’s access to social and material opportunities, like shelter, food, and
education, as well as strong attachments to significant others); and thirdly, force
characteristics (motivations, sense of self-efficacy, and resilience).
When referring to the second “P” in the PPCT model (Process), Bronfenbrenner
(1977; 1979; 2005) pinpointed two types of interaction, i.e., with objects and people. He
suggested that resultant cognitive, affective, and social outcomes depend largely on the
nature and quality of these interactions. The third letter,
“C,” in the PPCT model
(Context) tends to be the most frequently recalled element of the framework. Configured
as a series of interlinked concentric circles, they include environments that exert,
according to Houston (2017), “ever-increasing spheres of social influence, much like a
grouping of nested Russian dolls” (p. 57). At the heart of these circles exists the
microsystem where the child resides along with the people and objects they interact
with closely on a daily basis. It is here that bonding occurs and self-identity is cultivated.
Surrounding this is the mesosystem, made up of a series of connected mini-
mesosystems that the child may participate in or use. These include milieu such as
family and friendship circles, healthcare organisations, educational institutions and
religious establishments. The richness of the various mesosystems provides stimulation
and meaning for the child.
Beyond this lies the exosystem, which although the child may not come in direct
contact with, it still impacts their immediate environment. An example of this includes
concerns about a child’s welfare, when social services have powers to intervene.
Encapsulating the aforementioned layers of this system is the macrosystem. This refers
to the larger socio-cultural context, where political and economic policies are made.
Bronfenbrenner argued that although many societies possess similar organisational
traits, e.g., schooling, there are significant differences in how various groups experience
such institutions. Houston (2017) reminds us that it is within this layer of the overall
system that the state exerts its power to distribute wealth and create equity. Although
criticised by Houston (2017) for being “more expository, rather than explanatory” (p. 58),
in his discussion of power differentials and their effect on a child’s development,
Bronfenbrenner claimed that it is at this level that a child’s life chances and choices are
determined. “T,” the fourth letter in the PPCT model (Time), which Bronfenbrenner
originally referred to as the chronosystem, relates to temporally, profound changes
within and across the above-mentioned systems affecting the developing person.
This article suggests the worlds of the researcher and the researched are
diametrically opposed in many ways, leading to cultural dissonance. This is because
Traveller children and their families have their own distinctive cultural traditions,
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language (Shelta), social customs, and family practices. This has implications for how
they view and interact with government, healthcare, legal, social, and religious
organisations. Since they reside on the periphery of Northern Irish society and are often
stereotyped as non-compliant, there is a discernible power imbalance present,
especially in terms of educational opportunity and outcomes.
In order to address some of these inherent societal inequalities, Henderson,
DeCuir-Gunby, and Gill (2016) offer lessons learned from their work with economically
disadvantaged minority ethnic youth. In attempting to promote resilience within this
marginalised group, they advocate a movement towards a collectivist orientation,
whereby relational ties across Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model are emphasised,
rather than being individual layers of the framework. Henderson et al. (2016) believe
that the former approach re-orientates the perceived view of this group from “at risk” to
“at promise” (p.
469) by illuminating the “promotive factors” (p.
470) to resilience.
Moreover, by doing so, parts of the overall system can compensate for the short-term
absence of resources as well as buffer inadequacies elsewhere in the system.
Henderson et al. (2016) draw on a plethora of research to support the idea that
engaging with and empowering minority ethnic families (microsystem) and communities
(mesosystem) creates a ripple that positively affects a myriad of social, cognitive,
cultural, and economic outcomes. Stipanovic and Woo
(2017) present a similar
argument in their examination of how to best facilitate racial and minority ethnic high
school students to pursue STEM careers.
While there is hope in finding ways to truly involve the Traveller community in
social science research, an approach, such as the one suggested in this article, must
consider realistic challenges to that goal. Building meaningful relationships with
Traveller families will be difficult due to the marginalised treatment they receive and the
resultant mistrust it produces. Indeed, they are often regarded as not wanting to be
included in mainstream society and are therefore believed to contribute to their own
discrimination. Even when cognisant of such biases, Stipanovic and Woo (2017) remind
us to be reflexive as researchers so that our approach to data collection and analyses
does not become contaminated. Consequently, there is much to do in breaking down
communication barriers and increasing buy in to working with researchers. Once
engaged, the difficulty then is in retaining contact since, as implied by their name,
Travellers are a transient population. Withstanding such difficulties, the arts-based
methods approach to research presented in this article offers a first step in the process
of reaching out and inviting Traveller children to be heard in educational circles. We
further this endeavour by offering a way of facilitating the voices of Traveller children
within our approach.
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Facilitating Traveller Children’s Voices
It is important to facilitate the voices of Traveller children who become research
participants. So often in research, adults speak on behalf of children (under the age of
18) who are considered minors, and who have, until recently, been viewed as less
capable of expressing their opinions clearly and rationally (Davis, 2007). However, due
to the expansion of and variation in research methods now available, the educational
research canvas is changing. This issue is highlighted by Article 12 of the United
Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, created by the United Nations
Committee on the Rights of the Child
(1989), influencing data collection so that
advocacy on the part of children is now always necessary. The idea that children should
be recognised as knowledgeable participants with rights is now infused throughout
education across the United Kingdom (UK) and particularly in Northern Ireland, where it
is believed by the Department of Education Northern Ireland (2009, 2011) that children’s
direct involvement in schools’ decision-making processes can lead to more effective and
inclusive schooling.
However in the case of Traveller children, they are, for the most part, outside of
the compulsory education system and so there is even less chance of their voices being
heard. For this reason, it is necessary to consider what Lundy (2007) proposes as “a
new model for conceptualising Article 12 which attempts to capture more fully the true
extent of the UK’s legal obligations to children in terms of educational decision
making” (p. 931). If children are to be allowed to express their views in all matters
affecting them, then according to Lundy (2007) any research methods chosen must
encompass certain elements. Specifically, these are space to express their views, voice
to facilitate the expression of their views, audience to receive their views, and influence
so their views may be acted upon, as and where appropriate. In regards to this article,
the focus is firmly on the aspect of voice being facilitated within a safe space. Traveller
children’s voices can be facilitated through an arts-based methods approach to
research, which allows for culturally grounded data to be gathered.
Theoretical Underpinnings of Arts-Based Research
Arts-based research is supported by Barone and Eisner (2012) who suggest it is
unique from other research as it considers aesthetics in the inquiry and representation
of data, which they deem important. McNiff (2008) views arts-based research as a
systematic use of artistic process to investigate and hopefully understand experiences
held by both researcher and participant. He argues for researchers to fashion their own
manner of investigation, to observe without limitations, and to suspend judgement.
Eisner (2008), one of the founders of the Arts-Based Research Institute at Stanford
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University, believed the arts could be employed more productively within education to
understand issues within school environments in a more emotional and imaginative
manner. Barone (2008) argues that researchers who employ arts-based research
methods can inform better the minds of the general public on social, political, and
educational issues. He views art as emancipatory as it may reveal perspectives that
would otherwise remain hidden if researchers used a more popular method of research,
for example, a questionnaire. Barone
(2008) writes,
“when an arts-based work
engenders an aesthetic experience in its readers or viewers, empathy may be
established, connections made, perceptions altered, emotions touched, equilibria
disturbed, the status quo rendered questionable” (p. 39).
Sinner, Leggo, Irwin, Gouzouasis, and Grauer (2006) refer to the design of an
arts-based research project as one that starts with researchers conceiving an approach
with few limitations, and inquiring of participants about issues relevant to a topic that
develops during the process by utilising different arts-based methods. They suggest that
the data generated should be open to interpretation by researchers in a creative
manner, which is portrayed in a visual, performative, or text-based format that
contributes to a new understanding of the topic. This coincides with McNiff (2008) who
writes about the technique and process associated with arts-based research,
suggesting that arts-based researchers should be prepared to begin with questions, but
should be willing also to design arts-based methods in response to particular situations
as they arise.
Different kinds of arts-based research employs different techniques to gathering
data. Barone and Eisner (2006) identify three kinds, which include, “genres of narrative
construction and storytelling, educational connoisseurship and criticism, and nonliterary
forms of arts-based inquiry” (p. 98). Narrative construction and storytelling can be a
poem, novel, short story, life story, or even an autobiography. Educational
connoisseurship and criticism take the form of writing, where participants demonstrate
their appreciation, understanding or perceptions of art works and disclose the
significance, meaning or quality behind the art works that illuminate understanding.
Nonliterary forms of arts-based research can be painting, photography, collage, music,
sculpture, or even dance. For the purpose of this article, the focus of the suggested
arts-based research methods falls within this nonliterary form of gathering data, since
Traveller children in Northern Ireland underperform in English at Key Stage Three,
compared to all children in Northern Ireland, as referred to previously by Hamilton et al.
(2007).
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Arts-Based Methods to Elicit Traveller Children’s Views on
Education
Photography
The first proposed arts-based method in the design of research with Traveller
children is photography. It is supported by research from Schratz and Steiner-Loffler
(1998) who used photography to gather data from pupils on an evaluation of their
school and who commented, “Photography gives pupils the chance to research into
their ‘inner world’ of school life without a lot of verbal argumentation” (p. 235). In her
research on children using cameras as a means of expression, Luttrell (2010) chose
photography as it stimulates conversation between researchers and young people and,
“because it is an especially useful metaphor for thinking about how we read our social
worlds, construct our selves in relation to others, and express matters of the heart” (p.
225). Buchanan (2001), who writes about photography’s role in research, sees it as a
valuable data source representing an individual’s lived experience with a snapshot of a
social reality pertinent to an individual’s lifestyle or environment. However, he suggests
caution when analysing photographs, as they can be selective in portraying truth as the
individual taking the photograph is not simply a passive observer of life.
Arts-based researchers use photography in two ways. The first, known as photo
elicitation, involves the use of photographs, paintings, videos, cartoons, graffiti, or other
images to stimulate discussion among participants about a topic. Burke (2008) views
photo elicitation as
“the coupling of words and images, allowing for an interaction
between the two” (p. 28). Either the researcher or the participants can provide the
stimuli. The resultant discussion becomes the data to be analysed. When the
researcher chooses images to explore, a researcher-based locus of control ensues,
leading to inherent biases creeping into the study due to the choice of images provided
for discussion. In other words, the researcher’s perceptions of what is important to
Traveller children, in terms of educational experiences, are likely to influence the images
selected. This affects the subsequent discussion and conclusions drawn.
The second approach, called photo voice, entails the research participants taking
photographs, which become the data themselves. Leavy (2015) suggests that photo
voice is a research method where “research participants are given cameras and asked
to photograph their environment and circumstances” (p. 234). This approach honours
the central objective of this article when cast in the light of Lundy’s (2007) proposed
model. That is to say, the elements of space, voice, and audience are facilitated by
participants taking photographs that they feel represent their educational experiences,
followed by engagement in discussion that reveals meaning associated with their
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environment, circumstances, and aspirations. In addition, facilitating Traveller children’s
voices involves the vital dimension of social action. Employing this culturally responsive
approach to explore Traveller children’s experiences of compulsory education increases
the likelihood of achieving the element of influence as outlined in Lundy’s
(2007)
proposed model. By increasing the authenticity of the data gathered, it has the potential
to recognise the legitimacy of the Traveller community and to move forward policies that
give due weight to Traveller children’s views. The power of this approach lies in
facilitating consultation with Traveller children, whose views can often contradict the
impressions held by policy and decision-makers.
Kaplan (2008), who used participatory photography (photo voice) to elicit the
views of marginalised students in schools, offers advice based on his experience. This
advice relates to the potential of causing tensions between pupils and teachers, when
asking pupils to take a series of photographs within the school environment for an arts-
based research project. He suggests dialogue between researchers and school staff
over an extended period to ensure a trusting relationship is developed and maintained.
This can curb the level of apprehension felt by staff in schools when facilitating pupils to
take photographs of the school environment, possibly resulting in limitations as to what
can be photographed and used for the purpose of research.
By enabling Traveller children to take photographs, working with them over an
extended period, training them on using equipment, empowering them to think
creatively and intuitively when representing their lived experiences in this way, and
setting certain rules of what should not be photographed for discussion, can all
contribute to a healthy relationship between researchers and Traveller children. This
indicates that ownership of gathering data is collaborative, which can help lead to trust
from people who are generally considered marginalised.
Our proposed arts-based method of photography is to offer each Traveller child a
basic digital camera, accompanied with training on how to use the device. Traveller
children would also be informed of the purpose of this particular approach to research.
To be effective, Traveller children need to take photographs inside and outside their
school environment that reflect both what they currently learn and what they would like
to learn about at school. This coincides with Emmison and Smith (2000) who refer to
five ways of using photographs for research, one of which is to discover the views of a
particular cultural group. Grugel (2008), in her research using photo elicitation with
children, argued that photographs stimulate a child’s memory to reveal reasons for
previously taking specific photographs. She suggests the use of photographs taken by
children themselves to elicit an unstructured discussion with researchers is much better
than researchers setting pre-determined questions.
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Collage
The second proposed arts-based research method for our research with Traveller
children is collage. This technique creates a form of art using materials, such as images
from newspapers and magazines or other types of objects, which are cut, shaped and
glued to a sheet of cardstock. Colour, words, designs, or paint can be applied to the
collage and it can be two or three-dimensional.
Collage provides an opportunity for research participants to be in control and
decide how free they can be with their thoughts. These can be represented in a visual
manner, which is not possible when using a questionnaire. In research with young
people using scrapbooks as a method of gathering data, within which they created
collages, Bragg and Buckingham (2008) emphasised the importance of participant
control by realising that, “The research therefore needed to allow young people to find
their own level of response and to have some control over what information they were
prepared to share” (p. 115). They found strength in collage because it enabled research
participants to think about a topic in their own time and outside of school (having had an
explanation by researchers about what to do). Traveller children can work in their own
time and space and think carefully about what they have created in their collage prior to
discussion with the researchers.
Collage does not require artistic talent or expensive art materials, as suggested
by Davis (2008) who believes that, “a simple collage of magazine photos may at the
same time evoke inexpressible feeling states that ‘seep’ through the fissures and layers,
tugging at what lies below, behind or beyond the choice and arrangement of
pictures” (p. 246). Due to the nature of collage involving basic skills learned early in life,
such as cutting out pictures from newspapers and sticking them onto cardstock, this
activity may suit Traveller children. One reason for this is that they have become
disengaged from compulsory education, as evidenced by statistics from the Department
of Education Northern Ireland, but seem to have an interest in being creative and
expressive, as supported by AMT. This is especially so of teenage Traveller girls who
put much effort and take great pride in designing dresses associated with traditional
Traveller cultural celebrations, including First Communion and weddings.
We suggest that Traveller children participating in the proposed research receive
training on ways in which to make collages, accompanied with arts and crafts materials,
magazines, newspapers, and other relevant items. Traveller children would also be
informed of the purpose of this aspect of the research process. To be relevant, Traveller
children need to create collages that reflect how they view their current relationship with
other children at school, and how they would like their relationship to be with other
children at school. Butler-Kisber (2010) views collage as a way for researchers to help
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participants, “find the words to express a subjective experience, to initiate a dialogue
with participants, or as guided reflection” (p. 114).
Music
The third proposed arts-based research method for research with Traveller
children is music. This form of artistic expression is attractive to Traveller children, as
traditional Irish music forms part of their culture. This is evidenced by Greenwood (2012)
who employed theatre-making in a project with Roma
(a minority ethnic group
connected with Travellers) children, and believed that drama, as an arts-based research
method, would fit perfectly with their culture and enjoyment of music, song, and dance.
It enabled them to express themselves musically, through song, reflecting their lived
experiences. Boyle (2008) used music, through song, to express how educators and
researchers redefine their practice. The resultant song referred to his rejection of
traditional academic practices and enabled him to send out a message of hope and
freedom. McCarthy (2013) viewed music as a potential way of facilitating young people
to express their thoughts and ideas as a reflection of their lived experiences. However,
Daykin (2004) would suggest that although music is a powerful way of expressing one’s
internal thoughts, it is somewhat problematic to analyse and apply meaning to those
thoughts for the purpose of research and creating new knowledge.
We suggest Traveller children choose an existing song, or create a song. To be
purposeful, Traveller children need the song to reflect their current relationship with
teachers, and how they would like their relationship to be with teachers. Traveller
children could identify existing songs to be sourced by researchers to play in their
company, or alternatively create their own song to sing in the presence of researchers
who record it. Research by Carless and Douglas (2011), involving song as a tool of
inquiry, reported their belief that song offers something unique and of value which differs
from words alone stemming from a questionnaire.
Ethical Issues for Arts-Based Research with Traveller Children
The three proposed arts-based research methods of photography, collage, and
music present ethical issues that need consideration to become appropriate ways of
studying Traveller children’s educational experiences. We would recommend that arts-
based researchers refer to their institutional code of practice for research when planning
their project and complete a relevant research ethics application for submission to a
Research Ethics Committee (REC) or Institutional Review Board (IRB). They should
consult an appropriate professional association’s ethical guidelines as recommended by
the REC or IRB. Arts-based researchers have to address potential ethical issues during
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the design of their research with Traveller children, as they are a vulnerable group and
are untrusting of the settled community. These ethical issues become more pertinent
when expecting Traveller children to use three types of arts-based research methods.
These can be time-consuming and potentially contentious due to taking photographs. In
addition, Traveller children are under 18 years of age, and therefore parental consent is
required.
Essentially, arts-based researchers should create an ethical protocol for school
leaders involved in the arts-based research study, similar to that prescribed by Mitchell
(2011) when referring to taking photographs for the purpose of research. This protocol
would include a valid and transparent explanation on the purpose and importance of the
arts-based research, details on the methods, and any potential risks. It would also be
necessary to provide information in the protocol about the arts-based researchers,
where they work and who is funding the research, if it is indeed funded. Consideration
must be given towards how research data (i.e., photographs, collages, and music) are
to be used and how research findings are to be disseminated (i.e., publications,
conferences, and teaching). The ethical protocol needs to include details on how
confidentiality and anonymity are preserved, how data are stored in a secure manner,
the length of time for which data are stored, and who gains access to data. On the
issues of confidentiality and anonymity, Wiles
(2013) refers to processes that
researchers should follow and suggests that, “confidentiality is taken to mean that
identifiable information about individuals collected during the process of research will
not be disclosed and that the identity of research participants will be protected through
various processes designed to anonymise them…” (p. 42). It is important to outline how
much time Traveller children have to commit to taking part and how this is managed, as
well as how informed consent is obtained from parents and children. It is advisable to
communicate all this information orally through face-to-face meetings with the Traveller
parents and children, and to be patient when building up as best a rapport as possible
with the Traveller community.
Types of Data Collected
The data collected from this proposed arts-based research project will consist of
the photographs, collages, and songs, as outlined earlier in this article, which are
accompanied by transcripts of discussions. Traveller children will take photographs
relating to their educational experiences. These photographs will be transferred onto a
laptop computer and, those belonging to each Traveller child, will be viewed on a screen
by researchers in the company of each Traveller child. An unstructured discussion,
containing no pre-determined questions, ensues between each Traveller child and
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researchers, this conversation will be recorded using a digital audio recording device.
The photographs and audio recording for each Traveller child will become data.
After each Traveller child produces a collage relevant to their educational
experiences, it will be presented to researchers on an individual basis, and each
Traveller child will be given the opportunity, in an unstructured discussion, to provide
further explanations relating to the meaning behind the visual representations. These
discussions are recorded using a digital audio recording device and the recordings and
collages form the data.
The recordings or performances stemming from each Traveller child, who
chooses an existing song relevant to their educational experiences that researchers
listen to or devises a song relevant to their educational experiences that is performed in
the presence of researchers, will also become data. An unstructured discussion follows
between researchers and Traveller child, which is recorded and becomes part of the
data.
Using unstructured discussions to elicit data from the Traveller children, rather
than using structured or even semi-structured ones, is supported by Grugel (2008) who
believed it better to allow children to make up their own minds about what to say
regarding a photograph, instead of responding to structured interview questions.
According to Lincoln and Guba
(1985), employing a structured approach to the
discussion implies arts-based researchers have an awareness of what they do not
know, and therefore can create questions to help reveal what they do not know.
However, the unstructured approach implies the opposite, in that arts-based
researchers have no awareness of what they do not know and rely heavily on
participants in a discussion to be free to say what they want about a photograph, a
collage or a song.
We are more interested in gaining information from the Traveller children that is
focused on the unique and personalised accounts of their educational experiences. We
do not wish to employ standardised questions; rather we veer towards open-ended and
unstructured discussions. Even a semi-structured discussion would not suit our needs in
the case of this proposed study, as topics to inform questions become pre-determined,
even though they may be open-ended, and prompts (for clarification) or probes (for
elaboration) are used in a semi-structured discussion. In order to create a balance in
authority between the arts-based researcher and the Traveller children and to attempt to
address power dynamics, it is important that the participants produce the photographs,
the collages and the songs and are free to decide what they want to say via an
unstructured discussion.
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An example of planning for an unstructured discussion is one suggested by
Fontana and Frey (1998) where the arts-based researcher needs to contemplate
gaining access, being familiar with culture and language, presenting oneself, finding an
insider, establishing trust, and building rapport. Considering the example of conducting
research with a minority ethnic group, the arts-based researcher has to figure out the
best way to get access to the participants, such as volunteering with a support group in
a school associated with participants. Becoming knowledgeable of culture and language
by learning phrases or words and reading books, is paramount for the arts-based
researcher, and can be done by listening to conversations among the Traveller
community and sourcing material from a library about their history. Introducing oneself
to participants requires much thought in terms of career status, dress, social standing or
position of authority, and it is best to make the maximum effort to fit in. By connecting
with an insider from a minority ethnic group, the arts-based researcher can have access
to a cultural guide, e.g., a representative who speaks on behalf of a group. To ensure a
successful unstructured discussion with a minority ethnic group, one must establish the
trust of participants that must be maintained, otherwise it becomes weak and
destructive, therefore an arts-based researcher should spend time with participants
leading up to the unstructured discussions. As becoming aware of what is not known is
the ultimate aim of the unstructured discussion, the arts-based researcher should strive
to build up a rapport with members of a minority ethnic group to ensure research
becomes more informed, by viewing the world from their frame of reference instead of
encroaching academic notions upon them.
Data Analysis
Designing an arts-based research study in terms of analysing data can be
challenging. However, with reference to this proposed study, we suggest using content
analysis and thematic analysis to represent data obtained from Traveller children. This
suggestion is based on the idea that content analysis follows a system that is verifiable
as it uses coding and categorisation. It follows stages which are, according to Mayring
(2004), clear and unambiguous, and can reduce large quantities of data into
manageable and, more importantly, meaningful accounts of lived experiences, which
can be appreciated by those outside of academia. It can reveal the frequency, trends
and importance of particular areas of interest, thus exposing, in this particular case,
Traveller children’s educational experiences. Reasons for suggesting thematic analysis
are based on the richness it provides and the meaning it captures through the
interpretation of data collected from participants. It also utilises a strategy that involves
categorisation, although it has a broader capacity compared to content analysis. Ayres
(2008) views the strategy associated with thematic analysis as one “by which data are
segmented, categorized, summarized, and reconstructed in a way that captures the
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important concepts within a data set”
(p.
867). This strategy incorporated within
thematic analysis is beneficial as it preserves a connection between identified themes
and the original data.
Content analysis involves researchers analysing the content of photographs,
collages, songs, and accompanying transcripts to determine and rank collectively the
most to the least commonly occurring objects and terminology associated with the
learning experienced by Traveller children and their relationships with other children and
teachers at school. The data analysis can lead to charts and tables accompanied by
written summaries explaining them. This particular representation of data can follow five
stages outlined by Norton (2009) who has used this way of analysing data as, “it
combines both the search for rich meanings and a deeper understanding of the topic I
am researching, together with the ability to carry out some very basic quantitative
procedures” (p. 123).
According to Norton
(2009), the first stage of content analysis involves
researchers making a decision on which unit of analysis to use. The unit of analysis can
be information units that take the form of a single word, short phrase or sentence.
These describe the contents contained within photographs and collages, highlight
important lines of chosen or performed songs, and reveal relevant aspects of the
unstructured discussions associated with the visual and audio data. Stage two divides
the various types of data into chosen information units. This can be straightforward for
photographs and collages, as typically, information units take the descriptive form of a
single word, for instance “teacher” or “computer,” which identifies relevant people or
objects contained within the visual media. For songs and transcripts of discussions,
researchers can break them down into various information units, such as “scared,”
“lonely,” or “bullied.” Stages three and four involve researchers constructing a series of
categories to fit the various information units. Researchers construct these categories
as they read each of the information units. Then the researchers synthesise the data
and assign each information unit to categories that become over-arching
representations of the data, like “people in authority” or “negative experiences,” bearing
in mind that all information units are assigned and that an information unit is assigned to
only one category. If the number of categories becomes too large, researchers revisit
them to determine if some can be merged to form new, more manageable categories.
The fifth stage of content analysis, according to Norton
(2009), provides
researchers with a definitive calculation of the percentage breakdown of the information
units that fit within each of the constructed categories. This enables researchers to
produce data to respond to a research question related to, for example, the most
commonly occurring objects and terminology highlighted by Traveller children regarding
their learning and relationships with teachers and other children. In addition, it produces
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data that are relevant and easily understood by policy-makers, teachers, parents,
children, and groups that represent Travellers. Leitch (2008) in her account of studies
that employed visual imagery in their methodologies commented on one of them by
stating, “In this study, in order to create a generalized children’s narrative that would
have impact at policy level, content analysis of the visual and written data permitted
collective priorities to be mapped and carry weight” (p. 41).
However, it should be noted that, according to Rose
(2007), assigning
information units to coded categories when conducting content analysis of visual
imagery is never perfect, as one researcher can view an image differently from another
and therefore it can be interpreted differently. Rose (2007) emphasises sticking to the
rules associated with content analysis so that it is explicit in terms of methods, “Being so
up-front about your research procedures is a sort of reflexive research strategy” (p. 61).
Following an initial content analysis, researchers can adopt another approach,
described by Norton (2009) as thematic analysis of data, to respond to a research
question on Traveller children’s learning experiences and relationships with teachers
and other children at school.
This type of analysis applies to the visual data, obtained through artistic
expression, which leads to the audio-recorded transcripts of unstructured discussions
had by researchers and Traveller children. The first stage involves researchers
immersing themselves in the first transcript to take note of any general themes that
arise, such as
“a feeling of not valuing education.” The second stage requires
researchers to read each transcript, in turn, to generate a range of labelled categories
that are descriptive, like “don’t understand” or “homework boring.” For the next stage,
researchers delete those labelled categories that contain only one or two examples from
an entire set of transcripts. Stage four, according to Norton (2009), requires researchers
to examine a final set of categories and to merge them to form a set of more
manageable and relabelled themes, checking their relationship to the general themes
emerging from stage one.
The fifth stage requires researchers to check the themes against a second
reading of the entire transcripts and to choose quotes from Traveller children that
accurately reflect the theme labels. Stage six is when researchers link together those
themes that share a relationship, with the advice from Norton (2009) being, “Keep in
mind your research aim and look for patterns that make sense, in order to tell a
coherent and convincing account of what the data tells you” (p. 121). The final stage of
this prescribed thematic analysis involves researchers presenting their findings. They
select what they consider the most important theme, with accompanying examples of
data from transcripts, and write a summary on this theme, using quotes for illustration.
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Then researchers move onto the next important theme and follow the same procedure,
until all themes are identified and summarised.
Conclusion
If social science researchers are to progress beyond using questionnaires to
document the marginalised feelings of Northern Ireland’s Traveller children when it
comes to their experiences of compulsory education, then it is incumbent upon them to
offer this sector of society some culturally responsive means of engagement. Therefore,
this article concludes that if implemented and analysed appropriately, the three arts-
based research methods of photography, collage, and music can make a more valuable
contribution to facilitating the voices of Traveller children in relation to their lived
educational experiences compared to traditional methods, such as a questionnaire. In
turn, this presents a stronger case for these culturally contextualised views to be heard
by policy and decision-makers. In other words, if researchers are mindful of Traveller
children’s illiteracy and specific cultural traditions when creating a research project, this
awareness can lead to the design of research methods that have the capacity to
facilitate natural lines of communication for those being researched. The welcome by-
product of this approach can be powerful in that it sends out the message that Traveller
children’s ways of life are respectfully honoured, as opposed to altered to fit in with
more traditional research methods.
Employing Lundy’s (2007) proposed model for conceptualising Article 12 of the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child to underpin the choice of research
methods, strengthens this approach since it offers researchers concrete ways to
operationalise the belief that the views of a particular sector of society are valuable and
valued. Setting this within the larger ecological systems theory, as advocated by
Bronfenbrenner (1979), encourages greater potential for the fusion rather than the
collision of both researchers’ and participants’ worlds. It is only then that it becomes
possible to begin serving the educational needs of Traveller children more visibly and
precisely, rather than allowing this particular group to continue to be subsumed into the
generic category of minority ethnic groups by the Department of Education Northern
Ireland
(2016), when it comes to presenting statistics and providing subsequent
educational provision. This is even more imperative if one holds the view that Traveller
children are indigenous, yet unique, compared to the profiles of more recent migrants to
this part of the UK. Spending time and thinking creatively about research methods is
essential if, as researchers, we are serious about connecting meaningfully to
marginalised groups who often view compulsory education and its outworks with
suspicion and relative despondency when it comes to making a difference to their lives.
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Despite the potential inherent within an arts-based approach to research such as
the one proposed in this article, both Traveller children and staff in post-primary schools
might at first view such research with apprehension. This is understandable since it
involves methods rarely used in educational research in general and even less so with
Traveller children in Northern Ireland in particular. From the point of view of staff and
school management, there may be questions of value and validity with such an
approach since the methods discussed might be considered soft in terms of the data
they generate. This is reasonable, as schools are very busy places and so must
prioritise ventures that are likely to produce concrete, usable data to progress learning
and teaching. After all, they are held to high account publicly and so they must choose
where to place their efforts and energy.
It might also be feasible to suggest that since Traveller communities are
transient, some schools may see little value in conducting such research if there are
reduced opportunities to address potential recommendations. In terms of a research
grant, funding bodies may see a potentially greater return for their financial assistance if
they support research relating to other immigrant populations within Northern Ireland
which are larger and much less transient. Having said all of this, if researchers build up
and maintain close relations with both Traveller children as well as teaching staff, and
assure them of the value contained within these innovative approaches to gathering
data, then it can turn out to reveal a very powerful account of the young Travellers’ lived
experiences at school.
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