Motivating Instruction in University Continuing Education: A Fresh Look at the Key Principles

This article revisits the critically important issue of how to motivate adults to learn. From a review of the literature on effective instruction, the author synthesizes five comprehensive principles that exemplary facilitators of adult learning typically apply in their sessions, courses, and programs to and/or learner interest. The article includes some practical applications of these principles for instructors, programmers, and others who wish to enhance the teaching/learning process in adult education.


INTRODUCTION
The accumulated research on effective instruction and motivation of learning in adult education reveals valuable insights into enhancing the university continuing education process. From the relevant literature, the author synthesizes five key motivational principles that exemplary facilitators have been shown to use in order to motivate adult learning. The paper concludes with some practical suggestions based on these findings that administrative personnel could apply as they seek to promote effective teaching and learning in their particular institutions.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
If motivation is defined as the force that energizes human behaviour, then it follows that people are motivated at all times (Ames & Ames, 1984). However, a primary duty of facilitators in both formal and informal adult education settings is to assist learners to master the subject matter in the particular course or program they conduct. Their challenge is that the motivation to engage in learning is not solely influenced by external stimulation or facilitator reinforcement, but rather is a product of a complex blend of individuals' needs, attitudes, emotions, competencies, background experiences, and inherited traits (Jarvis, 1995;Rogers, 1996).
Recent research suggests that the degree of motivation to learn in individuals at any age may be determined by observing the learner's effort to engage in a particular learning activity. This effort, in turn, is influenced by the value a learner places on the task, and by the expectation the learner has on being successful at it (Courtney, 1992;Good & Brophy, 2000). Because these internal motivational states become deep-rooted in each learner's psyche, ultimately, facilitators can only endeavour to affect some of the variables that interact to stimulate individuals' motivation to learn (Davis, 1993).

Ideological Differences
The field of adult education has not been exempt from the "paradigm wars" (Gage, 1989;Oberle, 1991;Ralph, 1993) that have emerged in the social sciences and the humanities during the past 50 years. This ideological controversy has centred largely on epistemological differences concerning the nature of knowledge and learning (Cranton, 1994). Some educators embrace a positivistic philosophy, which conceptualizes teaching and learning as a technical-rational process that emphasizes structure, linearity, and mastery of specific knowledge and skills (e.g., see Gage, 1989). Others view teaching and learning from a phenomenological and interpretist perspective, which incorporates constructivist notions of individuals' personal/social/cultural meanings and values (e.g., see Brookfield, 1988).
Adult educators who reflect the first perspective, such as Beidler (1986), Knowles (1990), andMcKeachie (1999), tend to base their educational philosophy and practices on the research literature from the field of educational psychology (Collins, 1991). In contrast, some of the prominent proponents of the phenomenological paradigm, namely, Brookfield (1991), Cranton (1994), and Mezirow (1997), tend to portray adult learning in a more holistic sense that goes beyond the mastery of specific skills and competencies. Mezirow (1988), for instance, believes that "adult learning is not a one-dimensional linear process as 'Principles' implies"(p.227), which suggests he believes that motivation cannot be reduced to a list of instructional skills or techniques, notwithstanding the author's attempt to do so in this paper. Collins (1988; and Daloz (1999) would concur with Mezirow, as they assert that merely possessing more technical competence or instrumental skill seriously ignores the moral, ethical, and practical concerns present in life's routine experiences. Brookfield (1988), Cranton (1996), Mezirow 1997, andSchon (1987) conclude that the entire adult education process must not only provide for learners' critical reflection of their own and others' philosophies, theories, and practices, but that such analysis should lead to transformations in their habits of thinking and points of view-through the process of social discourse and dialogues.

Ideological Similarities
In reality, however, these two schools of thought may not be as divided as it appears in the context of pure academic analysis. For example, Collins (1988) admits that although "we should be concerned with technical competence and instrumental modes of action" (p. 232), the ethical and practical aspects of adult learning-acquired through reflective analysisare critical. Further, Mezirow (1988) contends that: "Certainly, learning how to do something better is important. But to suggest that this instrumental learning is all that is important in adult learning is patently a distortion" (p. 227).
orientation (e.g., the achievement of specific instrumental objectives); an activity orientation (e.g., the meeting of affiliation needs); and a learning orientation (e.g., an intrinsic motivation to acquire knowledge or skill for its own sake). Brookfield (1991), as well, embraces both paradigms in his analysis of exemplary teaching. He includes individuals' emotionality, reflection, intuition, instinct, and self-assessment in the complex and contextual world of teaching. He also synthesizes effective instruction into several "themes of advice for skilful teaching" (pp. 195-21 1), which he derives from the extensive body of relevant research on teaching and from his own educational experience and observations. Cranton (1997) further blends the positivistic and constructist views in her conceptualization of transformative learning. She suggests that there are two complementary processes within it: first, the rational/practical aspect, whereby learners deliberately and critically analyze their basic beliefs and assumptions, and those of others, and second, the intuitive/ emotional aspect, whereby they apply creative and imaginative thinking in dealing with problems. Her perspective encompasses all three types of learning proposed by Cranton (1994): (a) technical knowledge, based on purely instrumental motivations; (b) practical knowledge, based on better communication with and understanding of others; and (c) emancipatory knowledge, based on eradicating prejudiced, biased, discriminatory or inhumane thinking and action, and revising one's practice based on this new knowledge.

KEY PRINCIPLES
Despite their ideological differences, virtually all educational theorists and practitioners agree that individuals who are recognized as effective facilitators are consistently able to say and do certain things in their presentations and courses that enhance learning motivation (Brookfield, 1991;Driscoll, 1994;Freiberg & Driscoll, 1992;Rogers, 1996). In this section of the paper, these practices and skills are synthesized into five overarching principles, each of which would require the facilitator to implement one or more of what Cranton (1994) identified as technical and practical skills.

Promote Positive Relationships
Facilitators set the tone of the teaching/learning atmosphere by promoting feelings of mutual respect, support, and interpersonal trust within the group (Brookfield, 1991). Learners who feel welcome as worthwhile individuals and as contributing members of the learning group (thereby having their affiliation needs met) tend to engage in learning tasks with acceptance rather than avoidance. Learning, after all, includes not only cognitive dimensions, but also affective dimensions, that is, emotions, feelings, and spiritual aspects (see Goleman, 1995).
Indeed, both the research literature and the learning experiences of individuals have confirmed that teachers who are typically critical, intimidating, or emotionally cold tend to discourage participants from engaging in learning activities (Jarvis, 1995). In one survey of 500 graduates from 20 post-secondary institutions that assessed the students' degree of satisfaction with their undergraduate-education experience, the respondents expressed their greatest dissatisfaction with the institutional climate. They reported it as being non-inviting and unfriendly (The landscape, 1994). This may, however, be a reflection of a common concern of inexperienced facilitators. Their desire to create a pleasant social/emotional climate is often tempered by their desire not to appear overly "friendly." By appearing so, they fear that learners may see them as weak and/or indecisive, which may cause them to lose the respect of the learners and possibly the control of the learning task.
Again, both the research literature and learners' prior experiences affirm that effective facilitators are able to balance this sometimes delicate process. It is possible to create a positive, productive teaching/learning environment, and still be able to confront group-management problems or member misconduct in a direct but respectful manner (Daloz, 1999;Weber, 1997).
Effective facilitators incorporate specific techniques to achieve this goal, including: displaying enthusiasm for the subject; engaging members in conversation before or after the formal sessions; memorizing and using participants' names during the sessions; and employing sound communication strategies in a timely manner, for example, using appropriate facial expressions, body language, movement, and proximity (Borich, 2000;Good & Brophy, 2000). Such communicative actions and behaviours are skills that can be learned and/or improved upon, and although they are of a technical nature, they are of practical importantance.

Gain Learners' Attention
Learning motivation is enhanced when facilitators attract and hold learners' attention and interest in the learning activity (Stephens, 1996). Exemplary leaders are skilled at captivating participants' curiosity at the beginning of a session and at stimulating it throughout (Ralph, 1998b). However, facilitators require both ingenuity and diligence to create and sustain such "motivational sets" for each new session (Borich, 2000).
Facilitators who are successful at this task have an extensive repertoire of "motivators" to employ. These may include: (a) beginning a session with a puzzling question about the topic; (b) asking the learning group to solve a stated problem; (c) displaying a model, puzzle, or graphic that has discrepancies, and requesting the learners to resolve it; (d) incorporating a variety of related activities/methods/media/materials throughout the session; (e) actively involving learning group members in the learning tasks; and (f) creating and delivering all of these activities with effective pacing and momentum in order to sustain participants' motivation (Lambert, Tice, & Featherstone, 1996).

Ensure Content is Relevant
The level of motivation to participate and engage in learning increases when facilitators ensure that the content of their course is meaningful to learners' lives-past, present, and/or future, and preferably all three (Weimer, 1993). The ability to offer a convincing argument and a defensible rationale to learners, with respect to the value of the subject being presented, is an invaluable skill. Effective facilitators not only convey an interest in, and an enthusiasm for, their topic, but also provide regular opportunities for members of the learning group to apply their newly acquired knowledge and/or skills in authentic or "real-world" situations (Sutherland, 1997).
These facilitators are successful because they accomplish these tasks while: (a) simultaneously adjusting their teaching or mentorship style to meet the particular developmental needs of the learners; (b) consciously modelling the desired behaviour or skill (c) strategically employing guest presenters who can expose novices to the realities of authentic practice; and (d) frequently emphasizing that "theory and practice" related to the subject can inform each other (Eble, 1988;Ralph, 1998b;Stephens, 1996).
A specific example from my own experiences as a former secondlanguage teacher is the statement I presented to my students at the beginning of each course, and at relevant times throughout the term. It read: by at least six qualities: (a) they improve in their learning of their first language; (b) they exhibit a certain "mental stimulation" or a cognitive "enrichment component" about their personalities; (c) they possess a less "provincial" outlook and are more tolerant and accepting of people of other cultures; (d) they are more relaxed in a variety of social situations; (e) they show higher levels of cognitive flexibility (i.e., divergent thinking patterns and diversified reasoning processes); and (f) they gain in utilitarian aspects, such as enhancing their career and travel opportunities. (Ralph, 1982, p. 494;1998b, p. 19) Presenting such facts in a timely and convincing fashion helped to reduce some students' negative attitudes toward second language learning and to motivate all the students.

Provide Support and Challenge
Individuals' motivation to learn is enhanced when they engage in activities that are optimally balanced between being challenging and being achievable (Brookfield, 1986;Smith & Pourchot, 1998). A fundamental goal of the facilitative process is for learners to ultimately internalize the material or master the skills, so that the facilitator will no longer be required to assist in the learners' development.
During this process, facilitators apply both their technical (knowledge or task) and supportive (human relations) skills in inverse proportions in order to match the learner's developmental level. The learner's developmental level consists of two dimensions, specifically, competence and confidence in performing a particular learning feedback (see Ralph, 1996;1998a).
Thus, if a learner's competence to perform a task or to solve a problem is low, the facilitator reciprocates by meeting the learner's need for direction by giving clear, specific guidance, with high task-orientation, and/or concise, orderly instructions. In short, the facilitator uses a "telling" response. Correspondingly, if a learner's confidence in performing the task is low, the facilitator reacts by meeting the learner's need for bolstered confidence by providing highly supportive and encouraging feedback (Brookfield, 1986;Pratt, 1988;Stephens, 1996). When a learner's level of mastering a particular body of knowledge or learning a skill increases (i.e., when task-specific competence and confidence levels rise), the facilitator reduces the application of the two leadership-style components, (i.e., the technical/task dimension, and the supportive/encouraging aspect) in order to match the learner's increasing level of ability (Ralph, 1993;1998a).
Throughout this developmental learning process, the effective facilitator provides an appropriate blend of directive and supportive responses to synchronize, in inverse proportions, with the particular competence and confidence levels of the learner. As the learner's developmental level increases, the facilitator decreases the degree of task-direction, reinforcement, feedback and guidance given to the learner in performing a particular task. In turn, the learner, now having internalized her/his newly acquired levels of task-specific competence and confidence, is able to set new learning goals for other tasks. The cycle is then repeated (Ralph, 1993).
Illustrations of how effective facilitators in supervisory roles can help learners to develop their knowledge and skill bases are provided in several published reports on "Contextual Supervision" (see Ralph, 1996;1998a).

Ensure Learner Satisfaction
Motivation to learn is enhanced when a sense of achievement for accomplishing the learning tasks is achieved (Daloz, 1999;Stephens, 1996). Facilitators who incorporate the four motivational principles described above into their teaching/learning activities will motivate learners to complete tasks successfully. For adult learners, however, the ultimate goal of this achievement is to develop their autonomous thinking and their critical reflectivity (Mezirow, 1997).
If the evaluation activities in a course are consistent with the initial instructional objectives and with the daily learning tasks assigned during the session, and if the evaluation feedback is perceived to be fair and authentic, learners will generally be motivated to engage in accomplishing the learning goals (Eble, 1988;Good & Brophy, 2000). The reward for this learning achievement may be intrinsic, for example, experiencing the "inner glow of satisfaction" for personally succeeding at a task, or extrinsic, for example, receiving high grades, external awards, peer or teacher approval, or simply positive confirmation from others (see de Charms, 1984).
In order to confirm learners' achievements, effective facilitators employ positive reinforcement techniques that are: genuine, that is, given for clearly describable progress-not given indiscriminately or perceived by learners as artificial or unearned; immediate, that is, provided at the time of the successful task completion; and specific, that is, reinforcing particular points in the task performance rather than administering vague or general praise (see Borich, 2000;Winzer, 1995). permanent change in learners' behaviour as a result of repeated experience (Knowles, 1990), but rather as a transformational process that includes both rational and intuitive elements (Cranton, 1997;Grabove, 1997), it follows that learning could occur without formal "teaching," and vice versa. However, in formal education or training settings, "the teaching act" is supposed to promote the learning process among participants (Jarvis, 1995).
In the past, some observers have portrayed adult education teaching as basically "telling," lecturing, and "expert" presenting via one-way, instructor-directed communication. Learning was perceived to be the passive reception of such teaching, whereby learners listened dutifully, copying verbatim notes from the instructor, and subsequently memorized and regurgitated "the facts" on examinations.
Over the last three decades, however, this one-way process has undergone several changes, and a new process has emerged. This process exhibits the following characteristics: (a) the communication act is more interactive and collaborative among all learners and facilitators; (b) the facilitator has become more of a learning coach, and less of a knowledge dispenser; (c) the so-called "funnel approach," whereby "experts" pour information into learners' empty heads, has been replaced by a "pump approach," whereby facilitators use active-learning methods such as cooperative group-learning activities and inquiry-based tasks to "draw out" and extend learners' knowledge and skills (see Barr & Tagg, 1995;The landscape, 1994); and (d) all of these skills are applied to nurture participants' transformative learning (Cranton, 1997;Mezirow, 1997).
Indeed, some educators in adult learning institutions are currently questioning the value of using the lecture method in any form within the learning process. Some even believe that the term "teacher" is archaic and repressive, and should be excluded from educational vocabulary and practice and replaced by other terms, such as "facilitator of learning" or "provocateur" (Mezirow, 1997, p. 1 1). However, most adult education researchers and practitioners take the position that teaching and learning are intertwined and interrelated processes (Brookfield, 1991;Jarvis, 1995), and to try to separate them, other than for purposes of conceptual clarification and analysis, is a futile exercise. Even though it may be true that the most one person can do is attempt to assist another person to learn, individuals' past educational experiences and daily lives indicate that there are times when explicit, direct instruction can be delivered effectively. In such cases, lecturing or demonstrating-if done well-would be the best instructional method to apply. Thus, the term "teaching" represents the entire decision-making process by which a facilitator plans, prepares, organizes, implements, and assesses a variety of activities and events for the purpose of promoting participant learning (Hoyle & John, 1995). When the instructional decisions are enacted with clarity, precision, and "humaneness," facilitators will enhance group members' motivation to learn. However, this process must be nourished, not exploited: it cannot be coerced or mechanically controlled (Grabove, 1997). Above all, the fundamental integrity of the learner must not be violated (Daloz, 1999;Jarvis, 1995).
A key implication of these five principles for the planning and initiation of motivational tasks in university continuing education settings is a practical one. Effective facilitators select a variety of materials, methods, and media-not as an end in itself-but as a sensible means of providing all learners with at least some of their preferred activities and with some tasks that do not necessarily fall within their learning-style range. This action exposes learners to real-world experience, in which they encounter challenges and/or people, for whom they have no particular affinity. In these situations, learners must be helped to transform their frames of reference and thinking habits (Mezirow, 1997), and to accept and appreciate the abilities and limitations of others, realizing that the latter may complement and/or compensate their own strengths and weaknesses (Good & Brophy, 2000).

NEXT STEPS
These five research-based principles comprise a description (rather than a prescription) of key elements that exemplary adult educators have been observed to employ to stimulate and maintain motivation to learn. However, in actuality, these principles will not become "effective" until and unless individual facilitators validate them in their own practice (Wilen, Ishler, Hutchison, & Kindsvatter, 2000). Thus, by incorporating these motivational techniques into their daily routines, facilitators could learn and/or enhance their presenting and instructional skills and stimulate learners' engagement in the learning process. Individuals seeking employment in fields where such skills are required could provide prospective employers with specific documentation (e.g., in a professional portfolio or a video-cassette recording) of their instructional proficiency that demonstrates their expertise in motivational presentation.
Hiring new personnel and the professional development of existing personnel are two areas where these principles may be effectively applied. Some practical applications of these principles for university continuing education program developers and administrators are outlined next.

Practical Applications
On the assumption that post-secondary institutions want to recruit exemplary personnel who demonstrate motivational ability, administrators in charge of recruitment and hiring could ensure that three key modifications were made to their recruiting procedures in order to reflect this point.
First, they could include a specific reference to these desired facilitator qualifications in their position advertisements (such as: "provide evidence of effective and motivating instruction"). Second, when selecting qualified applicants for interviews for the position, only those candidates who, in fact, included such documentation in their application, via portfolio or teaching sample on video, could be short-listed. This could serve as an additional screening service to assist recruiters to distinguish among suitable and unsuitable candidates.
Third, the actual interview process could be extended, that is, interviewers could provide a specific time for interviewees to give a formal presentation on a predetermined subject (likely, their research interests) before the hiring committee. Thus, candidates would have the opportunity to demonstrate their presenting and instructional effectiveness in a "live session," and interviewers would have another opportunity to assess candidates' motivational skills and expertise in the assigned content area, as well as to pose further questions on various aspects of motivation and learning.
This information on learning motivation also has several implications for program developers and faculty/staff development administrators (e.g., see Brookfield, 1995;pp. 246-266.) As in the case of hiring personnel, incremental changes would be made to the existing programs. For instance, current offerings of instructional development workshops and seminars could be supplemented with one or more sessions devoted to the practicalities of enhancing learners' motivation in a post-secondary setting. Such in-service sessions could be designed for novice facilitators, for more experienced facilitators, or for both. However, to be successful, they would have to be designed to meet the criteria that have been identified repeatedly in the research literature on effective staff development. These criteria include: (a) the initiative must be seen as enhancing practitioners' effectiveness and/or status; (b) the innovation must be relatively easy to learn and to implement; and (c) the participants must be supported in their learning and application of the practice (e.g., see Fullan, 1991;Mezirow, 1997;Showers, Joyce, & Bennett, 1987).
Thus, the delivery of such professional development efforts must be more than "one-shot" affairs, because of the considerable effort, time, and courage required by participants to internalize the new knowledge and skills (Brookfield, 1995;Grabove, 1997). These sessions should be conducted by respected facilitators-either local or visiting colleagues who are recognized for their own motivational practices-and should be part of a connected series of interrelated sessions designed to enhance participants' instructional or facilitating expertise.
There is a final criterion for such professional development activities. These activities should include a collaborative component in which peers are given opportunities to share their professional experiences, to question and defend their own and their colleagues' related assumptions, theories, and practices, and to clarify and/or revise their own "theories-in-use" (Brookfield, 1988, p. 327).
If recruiters and program developers implement these strategies both in their candidate searches and in their professional development initiatives, the impact will be substantial and almost immediate. The message will quickly spread among prospective employees and other post-secondary institutions that facilitator effectiveness and motivational teaching are indeed valued qualities for new employees to possess (see Ralph 1998a;1998b). Individuals and institutions may then adjust their respective career search actions accordingly, and the cycle will continue.